MODULE 1: Introduction
1. Functional Requirements of a Building
Focus on understanding the following aspects:
a. Strength and Stability
- Strength: Ability of the structure to bear loads (dead load, live load, wind load, seismic load).
- Stability: Ensures the building remains safe and does not collapse under load or other forces.
b. Comforts and Convenience
- Comfort: Includes thermal comfort (temperature control), acoustic comfort (soundproofing), and visual comfort (lighting).
- Convenience: Proper layout of rooms, ease of access, and placement of utilities like water and electricity.
c. Daylight and Ventilation
- Daylight: Natural lighting for visual comfort, energy saving, and health benefits.
- Ventilation: The circulation of fresh air for comfort, health, and removal of pollutants.
2. Types of Building
Understand the characteristics of these types of buildings:
a. R.C.C. (Reinforced Cement Concrete) Buildings
- Made with concrete reinforced by steel bars.
- Features:
- High strength and durability.
- Fire resistance and adaptability for multi-story structures.
- Commonly used in modern construction.
b. Assam Type Buildings
- Traditional buildings found in Assam and Northeast India.
- Features:
- Lightweight and typically constructed with timber, bamboo, and other locally available materials.
- Suited for regions with high rainfall and seismic activity.
- Elevated floors to prevent flooding.
3. Classification as Per National Building Code of India (NBC)
The NBC classifies buildings based on their use and occupancy:
- Residential Buildings: Homes, apartments, dormitories.
- Educational Buildings: Schools, colleges, training centers.
- Institutional Buildings: Hospitals, nursing homes, jails.
- Assembly Buildings: Theaters, auditoriums, stadiums.
- Business Buildings: Offices, banks.
- Mercantile Buildings: Shops, markets, malls.
- Industrial Buildings: Factories, workshops.
- Storage Buildings: Warehouses, godowns.
- Hazardous Buildings: Chemical plants, fuel stations.
Study the classification with examples and try to relate it to real-life buildings.
MODULE 2: Building Elements
1. Foundation and Plinth
a. Foundations
The part of a building that transfers load to the ground. Two main types are:
Shallow Foundation:
- Used when load-bearing capacity of the soil is high and loads are light.
- Examples:
- Spread Footing: For columns.
- Strip Footing: For walls.
- Raft or Mat Foundation: Large slabs for buildings with heavy loads.
Deep Foundation:
- Used when soil near the surface is weak.
- Examples:
- Pile Foundation: Cylindrical columns driven deep into the soil.
- Pier Foundation: Vertical supports for heavy structures.
- Caisson Foundation: Large watertight boxes sunk into the soil.
b. Plinth
- The portion of a building above ground level and below the floor level.
- Acts as a barrier to moisture and provides elevation.
2. Structural Elements
a. Wall
- Load-bearing walls: Carry vertical loads from roof and floors.
- Partition walls: Non-load bearing, used for dividing spaces.
b. Beam
- Horizontal structural element that resists bending forces.
- Carries loads from walls, roofs, or floors to vertical supports.
c. Column
- Vertical structural element.
- Transmits compressive loads from beams and slabs to the foundation.
d. Lintel
- Horizontal beam above doors or windows.
- Supports the wall above openings.
3. Damp Proofing
Prevention of moisture from penetrating walls, floors, or roofs.
a. Causes of Dampness
- Poor drainage and plumbing.
- Groundwater rising into walls.
- Cracks or poor construction practices.
b. Methods and Materials
Materials:
- Bituminous coatings.
- Cement mortar with waterproofing compounds.
- Plastic or polythene sheets.
- Metal sheets (aluminum or lead).
Methods:
- Membrane damp proofing: Using a waterproof membrane.
- Integral damp proofing: Adding compounds to concrete or mortar.
- Surface treatment: Waterproof coatings on exposed areas.
c. Damp Proofing Treatments
- Floors: Use of membranes or concrete with waterproof additives.
- Walls: Horizontal damp-proof courses (DPC) between walls and foundations.
- Roofs: Use of sloping designs and waterproof materials.
4. Roof and Roof Coverings
a. Classification of Roofs
- Flat Roofs: Common in modern buildings, easy to construct.
- Pitched Roofs: Inclined, suitable for high-rainfall areas.
- Curved Roofs: Used in auditoriums or large spaces.
b. Roof Covering Materials
- Tiles: Clay or cement tiles for pitched roofs.
- Metal Sheets: Aluminum or steel sheets for durability.
- Bituminous Felt: Waterproofing layer for flat roofs.
c. False Ceiling
- Secondary ceiling below the main roof.
- Materials: Plaster of Paris, gypsum board, metal panels.
- Functions:
- Aesthetic appeal.
- Conceals wiring and ducts.
- Provides thermal insulation.
5. Temporary Structures
a. Shoring
- Temporary support for a structure or excavation.
- Types:
- Raking Shore: Diagonal support to stabilize walls.
- Flying Shore: Horizontal support between buildings.
- Dead Shore: Vertical support during wall repairs.
b. Scaffolding
- Temporary framework for construction workers.
- Types:
- Single Scaffolding: Used for brickwork, one line of standards.
- Double Scaffolding: Used for stone masonry, two lines of standards.
- Cantilever Scaffolding: Overhanging platform for specific conditions.
c. Formwork
- Temporary molds for concrete shaping.
- Types:
- Timber Formwork: Economical and flexible.
- Steel Formwork: Durable and reusable.
- Aluminum Formwork: Lightweight and efficient.
MODULE 3: Circulation elements
1. Horizontal and Vertical Transportation in Buildings
a. Horizontal Transportation
- Refers to movement across floors or rooms.
- Includes corridors, passages, and lobbies.
- Design considerations:
- Sufficient width for traffic.
- Accessibility for people with disabilities.
b. Vertical Transportation
- Refers to movement between floors.
- Includes stairs, lifts, and escalators.
- Design considerations:
- Placement to minimize walking distance.
- Safety and convenience for users.
2. Stairs
a. Definition
- A sequence of steps that connects different levels of a building.
b. Classification of Stairs
- Based on Shape:
- Straight Stairs: Simple and economical.
- Dog-legged Stairs: Two flights with a 180° turn; compact.
- Spiral Stairs: Circular; used where space is limited.
- Helical Stairs: Smooth, curved design; aesthetic.
- Quarter-Turn Stairs: Change direction at 90°.
- Bifurcated Stairs: Splits into two flights at a landing.
- Based on Material:
- Timber Stairs: Lightweight, aesthetic.
- Steel Stairs: Durable, modern.
- Concrete Stairs: Strong, suitable for heavy loads.
- Stone Stairs: Elegant but costly.
c. Location of Stairs
- Centrally located for easy access.
- Near main entrances or lobbies.
- Consider ventilation and lighting.
d. Fixation of Rise and Tread
- Rise: Vertical height of a step.
- Tread: Horizontal part of a step.
- Thumb Rule:
- 2R + T = 600 mm to 630 mm (Comfortable stride length).
e. Thumb Rules for Stairs
- Width: At least 1 m for residential and 1.5 m for public buildings.
- Riser Height: 150 mm to 180 mm.
- Tread Width: Minimum 250 mm.
- Headroom: Minimum 2.1 m clearance.
3. Lift and Escalators
a. Lifts (Elevators)
- Used for vertical transportation, especially in multi-story buildings.
- Components:
- Shaft, cab, counterweights, motor.
- Types:
- Passenger lifts, freight lifts, hospital lifts.
- Design Considerations:
- Capacity (e.g., 6-12 passengers for residential).
- Speed (1-2 m/s for residential, higher for commercial).
b. Escalators
- Moving stairs for high traffic areas (malls, airports).
- Features:
- Constant speed of 0.5 m/s.
- Inclination of 30° to 35°.
- Advantage: Efficient for continuous flow of people.
4. Doors and Windows
a. Location of Doors and Windows
- Doors:
- Near corners to avoid obstructing wall space.
- Align doors for better circulation and ventilation.
- Windows:
- Positioned for natural lighting and ventilation.
- Consider prevailing wind direction.
b. Size
- Doors: Standard sizes for residential buildings are 1 m × 2.1 m.
- Windows: Varies with purpose, typically 0.6 m to 1.8 m in height.
c. Types of Doors
- Panel Door: Strong, traditional design.
- Flush Door: Smooth surface, lightweight.
- Sliding Door: Saves space, modern look.
- Revolving Door: Used in commercial buildings.
- Louvered Door: Allows ventilation, used for closets.
- Glass Door: Aesthetic, used in modern buildings.
d. Types of Windows
- Casement Window: Hinged, opens like a door.
- Sliding Window: Saves space, used in apartments.
- Bay Window: Projects outward, aesthetic.
- Fixed Window: For lighting without ventilation.
- Louvered Window: Allows airflow while blocking sunlight.
e. Fixing and Fastenings
- Fixing: Ensure doors/windows are level and secure in frames.
- Fastenings:
- Hinges for movement.
- Bolts, locks, and latches for security.
- Handles for operation.
MODULE 4: Brick masonry
1. Definition of Brick Masonry
Brick masonry is a construction technique where bricks are bonded together with mortar to form walls, columns, or other structures.
2. General Principles of Brick Masonry
To ensure strength, durability, and aesthetics, follow these principles:
- Use good-quality bricks with uniform size and shape.
- Ensure proper mortar mix (cement-sand ratio depends on the application).
- Soak bricks in water before use to prevent absorption of moisture from mortar.
- Lay bricks on a full bed of mortar without voids.
- Ensure horizontal and vertical joints are uniform and properly filled with mortar.
- Stagger vertical joints for better bonding.
3. Bonds in Brick Work
Bonding ensures the bricks are interlocked for stability. Common bonds include:
a. Stretcher Bond
- Bricks are laid with their longer side (stretcher) visible in the wall.
- Suitable for half-brick walls.
b. Header Bond
- Bricks are laid with their shorter side (header) visible.
- Provides better strength, used for walls of one-brick thickness.
c. English Bond
- Alternates layers of headers and stretchers.
- Strong and commonly used in load-bearing walls.
d. Flemish Bond
- Alternates headers and stretchers in the same course.
- Aesthetic but requires skilled labor.
e. Rat-Trap Bond
- Hollow bond to improve thermal efficiency.
- Economical and eco-friendly.
4. Merits and Demerits of Brick Masonry
Merits
- Economical compared to concrete or stone masonry.
- Bricks are lightweight, making construction easier.
- High fire resistance.
- Flexible design for both load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls.
- Availability and ease of transportation.
Demerits
- Lower tensile strength compared to reinforced concrete.
- Time-consuming construction process.
- Susceptible to dampness without proper waterproofing.
- Limited height of structures compared to RCC.
5. Defects in Brick Masonry
a. Efflorescence
- White patches caused by salt deposits.
- Occurs due to the use of salt-containing materials or water.
b. Cracks
- Caused by uneven settlement, thermal expansion, or overloading.
c. Bulging
- Outward deformation due to poor workmanship or weak mortar.
d. Uneven Joints
- Leads to weak bonding and affects aesthetics.
e. Seepage and Dampness
- Improper curing or waterproofing allows water penetration.
6. Reinforced Brick Work
- A method of embedding steel reinforcement into brick masonry to improve strength and load-bearing capacity.
- Commonly used in structures exposed to tensile or shear stresses, such as arches, lintels, and retaining walls.
Advantages
- Increased strength and resistance to tensile stresses.
- Improved seismic resistance.
- Allows thinner walls compared to plain brick masonry.
Materials and Methods
- Reinforcing Bars: Steel bars or mesh placed in mortar joints.
- Brick Quality: Use high-quality bricks for better bonding.
- Mortar: Rich cement-sand mortar ensures durability.
- Spacing: Reinforcement is typically spaced at every 4th or 5th course.
MODULE 5: Flooring and Finishing
1. Types of Flooring
Flooring refers to the surface covering of a floor that provides durability, aesthetics, and functionality. Common types include:
a. Mud Flooring
- Description: Made of mud or clay.
- Advantages: Cheap, eco-friendly, maintains cool temperatures.
- Disadvantages: Weak and prone to wear, unsuitable for high-traffic areas.
b. Brick Flooring
- Description: Bricks are laid on a sand base or mortar.
- Advantages: Durable, economical, and suitable for outdoor use.
- Disadvantages: Rough surface, less aesthetic appeal.
c. Cement Concrete Flooring
- Description: Made by laying a mix of cement, sand, and aggregates.
- Advantages: Strong, durable, economical, and easy to maintain.
- Disadvantages: Susceptible to cracking without proper curing.
d. Tile Flooring
- Description: Made of ceramic, porcelain, or vitrified tiles laid on mortar or adhesive.
- Advantages: Aesthetic, water-resistant, and easy to clean.
- Disadvantages: Costly and can be slippery when wet.
e. Mosaic Flooring
- Description: Created by embedding small colored stones or tiles in a cement base.
- Advantages: Artistic, durable, and resistant to wear.
- Disadvantages: Labor-intensive and expensive.
f. Marble Flooring
- Description: Marble slabs are laid on a mortar bed.
- Advantages: Elegant, durable, and available in various patterns.
- Disadvantages: Expensive, slippery, and requires regular maintenance.
g. Timber Flooring
- Description: Made from hardwood planks.
- Advantages: Aesthetic, comfortable, and provides thermal insulation.
- Disadvantages: Prone to termite attack and moisture damage.
2. Plastering
Plastering provides a smooth surface to walls and ceilings while protecting them from environmental effects.
a. Types of Plastering
Cement Plastering:
- Mixture of cement and sand.
- Thickness: 12-15 mm for walls, 6-12 mm for ceilings.
- Advantages: Strong, durable, and water-resistant.
- Used in: Indoor and outdoor walls.
Lime Plastering:
- Made of lime and sand.
- Advantages: Eco-friendly and provides a smooth finish.
- Used in: Traditional buildings and heritage restoration.
b. Techniques
- Surface Preparation: Ensure the base is clean and free of dust.
- Applying Plaster: Apply in layers (scratch coat, floating coat, and finishing coat).
- Curing: Allow proper curing to prevent cracks.
3. Painting and Varnishing
a. Painting
Painting enhances the aesthetics and protects surfaces from weather and wear.
Types of Paints:
- Oil-Based Paints: Durable and glossy; used for wood and metal surfaces.
- Water-Based Paints (Emulsions): Quick-drying and suitable for walls.
- Enamel Paints: Tough, glossy, and water-resistant.
- Distemper: Economical, used for interior walls.
Steps in Painting:
- Surface Preparation: Sanding, cleaning, and applying primer.
- Application: Apply multiple coats for uniform coverage.
b. Varnishing
Varnishing protects and enhances the natural beauty of wood.
Types of Varnishes:
- Oil Varnish: Glossy and durable.
- Spirit Varnish: Quick-drying but less durable.
- Polyurethane Varnish: Highly resistant to scratches and water.
Process:
- Surface Preparation: Sanding and cleaning.
- Application: Use a brush to apply thin, even coats.
4. Cement and Lime Terracing
Used to protect roofs from water leakage and improve durability.
a. Cement Terracing
- A layer of cement concrete is applied on the roof.
- Sloping is added for water drainage.
- Advantages: Strong and waterproof.
b. Lime Terracing
- A mix of lime, surkhi (crushed brick), and jaggery is used.
- Used in heritage or traditional structures.
- Advantages: Good thermal insulation.